Introduction

One of the aims of education, particularly for the economically disadvantaged sections of society, is empowerment. The existing system of higher education in India is based on the colonial system of ‘liberal education’, meant for the free pursuit of knowledge.[1]

It was meant to produce leaders in society, industry and services.[2]

This system is not conducive to employment and a majority of Indian graduates are actually unemployable. This problem has assumed serious proportions and there is an extreme urgency to introduce a vocational or career orientation into higher education.[3]

There is such a serious mismatch between jobs available and graduates without the requisite skills, that business leaders are demanding that the Indian government should review its education policies.[4]

The existing arts and science colleges have not only proved unsuccessful in bridging the gap between education and employment, but also between rural and urban students; between high and low achievers; and knowledge and its application. Several students lack confidence in themselves and the necessary learning skills to cope with the requirements of college. They have unrealistic aspirations and lack motivation, resulting in a high failure rate amongst disadvantaged students.[5]

Further, there is a resistance amongst students to vocational education in India, as there is a perception that it is meant for those who are not good at academics. Hence, an attempt should be made to change the curricula of college graduate courses to introduce a vocational component.[6]

While universities should prepare the engineers, scientists and industrialists and social leaders of a country, a second-tier educational level is essential to prepare the middle-level technologists to manage and maintain the industrial infrastructure. Without such an educated and technical workforce, there can be no progress in a region.[7]

Steps were taken during the early 1980s to introduce Application Oriented Courses (AOCs) within the framework of the graduate courses and in the 1990s several self-financing institutions sprang up, with the approval of universities and state governments, to run job-oriented programmes in fields such as electronics, computer science, accountancy, food science, hospital and hotel management, etc., which have been popular with students.[8]

The University Grants Commission also introduced vocational courses as part of the three-year bachelor’s degree courses. These were introduced in place of an equivalent course, by restructuring the curriculum to integrate the vocational angle, and by having vocational courses outside the timetable.[9]

However, college principals have difficulty identifying industries and other funding agencies to finance them, and there is still a considerable gap in what industry wants and colleges are able to provide.[10]

The country needs a college system that will bridge the gap between what it teaches its students and the demands of the market.[11]

India has a large labour force that is unskilled and needs opportunities for training. In addition, there is a backlog of school dropouts who are over the school age of sixteen and work as unskilled workers.[12]

According to an ILO report, 95 per cent of the Indian workforce has no marketable skills. This vast need for productive skills cannot be achieved through the formal sector. An informal flexible system is required to identify and develop local talent for local needs.[13]

Weaknesses pointed out by the Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan include:[14]

1. An abundance of talent in the country, which is mostly un-nurtured.
2. Lack of easy availability of knowledge resources and loss of opportunities thereof.
3. Mismatch between demand and supply of knowledge and skills and lack of collaborative learning.
4. Questionable quality of teaching.
5. Growing digital divide.
6. Lack of personalized monitoring and long-term tracking of learning, skills upgradation and performance.
7. Time mismatch between school and employment hours.

A Summary of the Suggestions to Improve the Indian Education System According to J. P. Naik’s Book, Policy and Performance in Indian Education, 19947-74.[15]

J. P. Naik, in his book, Policy and Performance in Indian Education, 19947-74 has made several comments on the Indian education system, that hold true even today:

1. The single entry point for educational institutes should be replaced by a multiple entry point system.
2. The sequential character of entry to educational institutes should be changed to allow older people with interrupted education to continue their education.
3. Part-time education should be introduces to supplement full-time education.
4. Part-time teaching faculty should be availed of to take advantage of special expertise and talent within communities.
5. The formal education system needs to be blended with a non-formal system that could provide life-long education and meet the challenges of a developing and changing society and economy.

Any changes introduced in the Indian system to date consist of the creation of new types of institutes that end up functioning in the same way as the existing ones. For example when vocational/technical education was to be introduced, the 10+2+3 system was formulated, with the intention that bifurcation to academic or vocational/technical education would be done at the +2 stage. However, instead of imparting both types of education within the same institutes, new ITIs and polytechnics were created, without paying attention to the way these operated. The result was that there has been no appreciable shift of students to vocational streams in existing institutes nor has the education provided in the new ones impacted students or the economy.[16]

Community Colleges

The community college or the people’s college is a concept that was developed in the US, and could well be adapted to the Indian system of education. It could offer quality education, with technical and vocational training, to create competent career-oriented individuals.[17]

Community colleges conform to some concepts of the National Policy of Education, such as open access, continuing education, vocationalization,[18] and blend with the current trends of vocational courses being increasingly introduced in several colleges in India.[19]

Community colleges are a twentieth century phenomenon that has found favour for the following reasons:

1. There is growing trend to reject elitist ‘liberal’ higher education.[20]
2. There is tendency to view higher education as a source of trained manpower.[21]
3. The technological explosion has created a need for highly educated theoretical scientists and experts in the services and other industries, supported by a strong structure of technicians and middle-level staff. [22]
4. They provide motivational programmes and help the disadvantaged students to develop self-esteem and develop realistic career options.[23]
5. They are locally controlled and are responsive to local the community, industry and business.[24]
6. They act as a cultural and intellectual centre for the entire community and as a catalyst in development.[25]
7. Their one aim is to provide students with relevant, quality job skills that are decided in consultation with local industry and business.[26]
8. Teachers work in industry and industry provides teachers from their personnel.[27]
9. They develop and adapt to suit the local needs of the community.[28]

This is an important aspect in the Indian context, with its vast range of cultural and linguistic diversity, differing educational requirements and economic development. An educational institution located in a particular region, responsive to regional needs and aspirations would mean better, low-cost education, resulting in improved economic development opportunities for the people.[29]

American community colleges are designated as comprehensive institutions combining liberal arts, vocational, technical and adult education. They have two-year duration courses and students accumulate credits that are transferable to colleges of higher education. A majority of students complete the first two years of junior college at such institutions.[30] 

They have an open-door policy that enables almost anyone seeking higher education or the enhancement of vocational and technical skills to enrol. Today, in the Indian system, barring open universities and schools, and those offering correspondence courses, this is difficult, if not impossible.

Community colleges can be linked to specific universities and colleges, so that credits gained in them can be used to enter mainstream higher education. Typically, students would be older to ‘traditional’ students, would not have parental financial support and would most likely be part-time students, who are holding down jobs.[31]

Additionally, community colleges can work in partnership with business organizations, thereby ensuring that skills are kept up to date and meet the requirements of the job market.[32] Courses could include agriculture, engineering technologies, communications, healthcare, office occupations, computers, data processing, trade, tourism, hospitality, etc. Courses could be part-time or full-time; short duration courses of 10-15 weeks, or long duration ones, up to two years. A skilled and technically competitive manpower is essential for every country today, with expanding globalization. Community colleges, link education with technical and vocational training, developing skills in the emerging or sunrise industries.[33]^{, [34]}

There are three types of courses such colleges can offer that could be considered suitable for India. First, vocational and technical courses. Second, is a two-year programme that prepares students for transfer to a three-year bachelor’s degree in science, arts or commerce at a traditional college. The third type is a remedial programme that brings students up to required levels in reading, writing, mathematics and communication, for them to pursue further education.[35] This is eminently suited to the Indian environment, where we still have first-generation students, who do not have home support for their studies and lag behind, frequently resulting in dropouts; those who have already dropped out of the education system, and could have even reverted to illiteracy; and adults who may not have had an opportunity to study.

Further, it has been proved beyond doubt that several Indian children are not academically prepared to compete for entrance to institutions of higher education, hence the reservation policy. On several occasions it has been seen that students accepted under reservations are unable to cope with the courses they have entered. This is where remedial colleges, with an open-door policy would bring significant benefits, even though it means that the period of study may be increased. Implementation of such a system could even create the possibility of ultimately doing away with reservation. For this, however, government needs to show sincere commitment and provide the required resources.[36]

Since these institutions would all have a general education component, students who originally joined a vocational or remedial course, have the opportunity to prepare for higher college courses, if they come up to the required standards.[37]

Courses could be designed to give diplomas, certificates, and, as in the case of the US, associate degrees, that could equal a certain number of credits, enabling entrance to traditional universities. They could be designed for skill upgradation in collaboration with industrial houses, or for the development of new skills, particularly in the ‘sunrise industries’.[38]

The philosophy of a community college is an institution that provides transfer to higher education and prepares a student for an occupation. Being locally based and supported by the community, it is expected to link the aspirations of the community through an education that provides employment or higher education. It accommodates over-achievers and under-achievers.[39]

Cost of Tuition at Community Colleges

Since these colleges would be sponsored by government education boards, they would be affordable. Running the colleges in existing educational buildings, during off hours would considerably reduce capital expenses of acquiring and setting up buildings.[40]

While governments and their agencies would provide finance, industry could make major contributions in the form of other resources such as equipment, part-time teachers, etc.[41]

A larger portion of part-time teaching faculty is favoured. This would reduce cost of education and improve quality by drawing on experienced professionals from the community.[42]

Accessibility

Lack of accessibility of secondary school and higher educational facilities is a major factor in the poor educational status in India. Community colleges, set up at the district level, using distance learning techniques such as computer-based and on-line classrooms would go a long way in encouraging greater enrolment rates and lower dropout rates.

Adaptation of Community Colleges to the Indian Environment

Vocational education has already been introduced in Indian educational institutions, following recommendations of several commissions and studies set up by the Government of India. However, it is not feasible to have across-the-board vocational courses for the entire country; not even an entire state.

There is a need for a high level of decentralization, while designing and delivering training schemes. Every region must be targeted separately, taking into account the aspirations of its people, the level of development and the industries set up in the area. Additionally, target groups would vary from those totally lacking in literacy to neo-literates; school and college dropouts; and graduates in the arts, science, commerce and engineering streams. This means that a hierarchical education system would have to be developed, making use of existing facilities, revamping some and setting up new facilities.[43]

Employment generation would be a major goal, along with reduction of drudgery and child labour, improvement in wage-earning capabilities, and fulfilling the needs of industry and services, by providing high-quality, well-trained labour and staff.[44]

It is important to note that even in the US, when community colleges were first set up, these were not introduced as ready-made institutions. Each region was first studied to find out the requirements of that particular area and the college was tailored to the needs of the community. It then developed and even changed shape over the decades as the requirements of the area changed. The concept of the community college in India too should be kept dynamic, meeting the needs of communities as they change.[45]

This means continuous interaction between the college authorities and the community and industry of the area, to enable the college to produce people with a well-rounded education, capable of entering middle-level positions in industry, where competence is more important than degrees. At the same time, those who wish to pursue higher education would receive the necessary credits to enable them to join a regular university.[46]

The profile of the college would reflect the needs of the community living around it. There should be a high level of interaction with the community on course delivery, range of services, tuition fees and budget, recruitment of administrative staff, etc. so that the entire community would learn from and have a stake in the college.[47]

Owing to the varying levels of educational achievements of different age groups, it is essential to adopt an open-door policy, based on minimum qualifications, with courses starting from literacy programmes upwards, so that every individual who chooses to can attain an educational level based on choice and ability. Open admission, easy accessibility, low tuition costs, a wide range of programmes, options for part-time courses and continuing education, all adapted to the specific needs of a region, could bring about a revolution in the educational, industrial and development scenario in India.[48]

With such a comprehensive, flexible education system, students would be able to exercise different options: It could be a first step to a formal university degree; they could complete a two year associate degree or diploma and step into the middle levels of the job market; they could be satisfied to enter the job market with a certificate of competence; they could transfer from a vocational course to an academic one and vice verse. Thus, students would have no apprehensions that they are ‘stuck’ in a stream they have entered.[49]

Fulfilling the Constitutional Provisions of Access, Equity and Relevance in Higher Education through Community Colleges

Community colleges appear to be the ideal solution to fulfil the constitutional provisions of access, equity and relevance in higher education for the following reasons:

1. They would provide admission to all those who wish to (access and equity).[50]
2. They would provide an education that would enable entry to both higher education and employment opportunities.[51]
3. All students would achieve success by continuing their education until they have mastered the requisite skill or knowledge (quality).[52]
4. They would remove the obsolescence in the existing arts and science colleges by interactions with industry and the community.[53]
5. They would provide opportunities to industrial and other employers to be a part of community colleges, and allow their employees to be trained and retrained to remove obsolescence and keep up to date with latest technologies.[54]
6. As the community would itself be involved in the college, there would be a greater commitment to achieve success.[55]

Transforming Educational Institutions for the Educational Needs of Communities

The American experience with community colleges has made it clear that there is no need to create a new category of educational institutions. What is needed is to transform existing institutions to suit the educational requirements of the communities they serve. The higher educational requirements of students seeking to follow middle level careers can be satisfied within the +2 stage, and if a comprehensive education is provided to students during this phase, as is done in the American community colleges, it provides an opportunity for those aspiring to higher degrees and graduation, to step into the traditional formal universities and colleges. At present, those students who opt for vocational/technical training at the +2 stage are not able to do so. Therefore, it is the Indian educational institutions at the lower levels of higher education that need to be transformed to be more receptive to local community needs, while providing adequate comprehensive education to its students and maintaining links with formal higher education institutions and bodies.[56]

Indian universities and colleges would need to be transformed accordingly to adopt such a system.

Characteristics of a Community College

The main characteristic of a community college should be flexibility in planning, administration and implementation. This means that the institution should have considerable autonomy and a good governing body with representation from educationists, industry and the community. Other characteristics include:[57]

1. Eligibility criteria to be based on interest, aptitude and attitude rather than marks and grades achieved in the previous class.[58]
2. Seminars and workshops to be arranged for students to identify their own skills, interests and aptitudes.[59]
3. Mastery over learning rather than number of years should be the norm. Students can continue on the rolls of the college till they achieve mastery, but at the convenience of teachers and students. Mastery should be tested through continuous internal assessments rather than terminal examinations.[60]
4. College services should be available at the convenience of the community and not only the teachers.[61]
5. Transfer and mobility between streams (skills training to knowledge acquisition and vice versa) and institutions should be freely available, for which a system of credit transfer would need to be introduced in the educational system of the country.[62]
6. The institute should be recognized and its status confirmed before it starts.[63]
7. It should not duplicate what is already available in the area.[64]
8. Courses should be of varied lengths depending on the application being learnt.[65]
9. Cooperation with industry and business would include internships during training to provide on-the-job experiences for students in academic streams. These could run concurrently with studies, or alternate. [66]^{, [67]}
10. Teachers should shift from lecture-mode to being guides and facilitators. Teaching methods should be updated regularly to make use of new technologies as they are made available and efforts must be made to make them available.[68]
11. Apart from skills training and knowledge acquisition, there should be remedial courses to uplift low achievers and fill the gaps between rural and urban students, along with courses and to build confidence, personality, etc.[69]
12. Life-skills management should be taught through counselling. These should include training in resume writing and appearing for interviews.[70]^{, [71]}
13. Special guidance and counselling for students with learning disabilities should be provided.[72]
14. There should be literacy programmes for those in the community who need them.[73]
15. There should be flexibility in selection of teachers, who should preferably be on contract or part-time, to keep costs low.[74]
16. UGC and the state and central governments would monitor the colleges and provide finances, which should also be available from other sources, such as the industries and services that would benefit from them.[75]
17. Apart from students preparing for employment, employed persons can use the colleges to improve their knowledge and skills. People could be helped to start their own businesses and housewives and other women could gain an education and learn skills.[76]

 Where Can Community Colleges Be Located?

1. Where there are an adequate number of school pass-outs to make use of such colleges and where there are no such facilities available.[77]
2. In communities that are aware of and amenable to supporting such ventures.[78]
3. Where facilities such as polytechnics, arts and science colleges are available but are not put to proper use. These can be converted, partially or wholly to community colleges.[79]
4. In areas with large-scale industries and businesses where there would be an adequate number of learners who could be absorbed within the area.[80]
5. In urban areas where educational demands are never met.[81]
6. In rural, remote and backward areas, where remedial education can help uplift students and provide employment opportunities.[82]

The Eleventh Five Year Plan’s Working Group on Higher Education

The Eleventh Five Year Plan’s Working Group on Higher Education recommends the setting up of community colleges and enhancing the distance learning system of education in the country.

The Working Group has projected that with the proposed plan target, the gross enrolment rate (GER) in higher education would increase from 15.6 per cent in 2001 to 20.6 percent in 2012, the end of the Eleventh Five Year Plan.[83]

There are significant disparities in the GER for rural and urban areas, being 5.58 per cent and 21.74 per cent respectively in 2000, as per Census figures.[84]

Growth of higher education can be viewed from the supply and demand side. From the supply side it needs to be ascertained that those who have passed the senior secondary level and are eligible to join higher education must have access to an institution of higher education, while higher education must grow and diversify to meet the growing needs of the economy and society. This means that higher education has backward linkages with school education and forward linkages with the economy to supply the relevant manpower along with well qualified teachers for the education sector itself.[85]

Care should be taken that the contents of higher education have continuity with earlier levels of education. Care should also be taken to ensure that there is no ad-hocism in taking particular courses and subjects, which may lead to wastage, while at the same time, not lead to inflexibility for students in choosing courses.[86]

The Parliamentary Standing Committee in its 172^nd Report recommended the following:[87]

1. Special programmes for encouraging students from backward and minority communities should be prepared as their participation in higher education is abysmally low.[88]
2. More women need to participate in higher education for which fellowships, hostels and more infrastructure is required.[89]
3.  Good training should be imparted in fields such as special education, which may not be conventionally academic in nature.[90]
4. Research needs to be closely linked with teaching and should involve industry.[91]
5. The quality of education should be enhanced by developing multi-skills, modernizing curricula, evolving a mechanism for understanding market requirements, increasing vocationalization, involving all stakeholders, creating partnerships with industry and developing we-based programmes.[92]
6. Teachers’ remunerations should be linked to performance and their professional development should be a continuous process, with refresher courses, etc., to update skills in coordination with industry and business.[93]
7. Exchange of faculty members should be encouraged and sabbaticals should be extended to college teachers.[94]
8. Terms of service and remuneration should be improved to attract and retain the best talents.[95]
9. Interdisciplinary and integrated courses should be started at undergraduate and postgraduate levels with flexibility in course selection and a system of credits to enable horizontal and vertical mobility.[96]
10. Interdisciplinary schools or centres should be set up for research purposes.[97]
11. The creation of a central tribal university to promote education in tribal regions.[98]
12. Colleges affiliated to state universities in the backward regions should be strengthened by UGC.[99]
13. Autonomous colleges should be networked such that students can benefit by credit transfers.[100]

The UGC had introduced vocational courses in select arts, science and commerce colleges that run concurrently with the degree course and for which a diploma is awarded. These should be based on demands for skills in the economy, and regional priorities, preferably with collaboration with industry and business to employ such students.[101]

A report by the team nominated by the University Grants Commission to study community colleges in the US (1994) states:

1. To incorporate the concept of community colleges in existing degree programmes by increasing the duration by one year on an experimental basis in a few select colleges. The first two years must be restructured with emphasis on vocational and job-oriented courses. The next two years would be for specialization. The four-year course would be an honours course with an option to do the master’s degree in one year.[102]
2. Vocationalization of education at the undergraduate level could be strengthened as an alternative. It would be necessary to introduce divergent vocational and technical courses catering to the changing economy. These courses would have a three-year duration. This could be evaluated after five years.[103]
3. The existing college infrastructure should be used to introduce job-oriented courses in the morning, evening and over weekends, allowing flexibility in terms of time and duration, of the programme and permitting students to move at their own pace to complete the course. For this a credit system would need to be introduced.[104]
4. Community colleges could be started as independent institutions by mobilizing community resources. For this a definite policy must be evolved.[105]
5. The present polytechnics could be modified on a broader philosophy, with the American community college model as a base.[106]
6.  The admission policy could be as in the open university system, so that students can register in one college and take courses in different ones. Transfer of credits between institutions should be allowed.[107]

Report by Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S.J., Prior to Starting the Madras Community College

1. Every occupational programme should have an advisory board with close links to the relevant industry/service sector for needs assessment, curriculum development, training, internship and job placement.[108]
2. Job placement is critical to the success of a community college and a well laid out placement procedure with internship counselling and evaluation must be in place.[109]
3. While developing occupational skills, 30 per cent of training should aim at developing life skills such as critical thinking, problem solving, decision making communication skills and interpersonal relations. Additionally students should receive a general education in reading, writing, mathematics, science, history, sociology, literature, etc. All students would need to take all courses and earn credits, to maintain a comprehensive educational pattern.[110]
4. The college should promote partnerships with business and industry to generate income, provide contract training, and professional development of the workforce.[111]
5. Flexibility in time to complete the curriculum is essential to take care of slow and fast learners, providing them with development and remedial services as the responsibility of the teacher to bring them up to a certain level.[112]
6. Cost effectiveness must be borne in mind while serving the economically disadvantaged.[113]
7. The ESL programme is an essential component of training taking into account students who are fluent in speaking but poor in writing and vice versa. Students should be motivated to learn spoken and written English.[114]
8. The institute should be accountable to the community.[115]
9. There should be continuing and life-long education of the workforce.[116]
10. Placement test should take into account personality, interests aptitude and ability of the students.[117]
11. The American system would need to be modified for India. A two-year degree course would be difficult to implement, and it would be advisable to retain and supplement the three-year course with diploma and certificate courses.[118]
12. Transfer between institutions is not possible at present in the Indian situation, so it could be done within the institutions to start with.[119]

The Eleventh Five Year Plan and Community Colleges

The Working Group mentions community colleges as an alternative system of education to help the poor, tribals and women to find gainful employment in collaboration with local industry, business and the community. It states that community colleges is the need of the hour, providing education for a livelihood, and eliminating exclusion from the formal system, mismatch between education and employment capabilities, poverty, unemployment, under-employment, un-employability and dropouts. It states further, that it has had the unique achievement of empowering the socially, economically and educationally backward sections of society during the past ten years.[120]

It recommends:[121]

1. National recognition of the community college system.[122]
2. Vertical mobility of the community college student through open and conventional universities with a three-tier system of diploma, associate degree and degree.[123]
3. Community colleges to be set up in educationally backward regions with emphasis on soft skills development, to correct regional imbalance in higher education.[124]
4. Institutes of repute to adopt neighbouring villages and open community colleges to promote vocational and skills training, pre-college training and bridge courses.[125]
5. Funds, stipends and scholarships to the disadvantaged sections of society, particularly SCs, STs, backward classes, most backward classes, women and minorities.[126]
6. Central placement cells to be set up in collaboration with the Confederation of Indian Industries and Chambers of Commerce.[127]

It is important to note that a large number of colleges and universities are under the purview of the UGC but do not get financial support because they do not meet the minimum eligibility criteria for infrastructure, physical facilities and human resources. Most of these institutions are located in rural and backward areas, catering to 30-40 lakh students from the most deprived sections of society.

Distance Learning

Distance learning within community colleges is an added advantage for those students who cannot commute to college and cannot stay in hostels, while it reduces the number of teachers required. This means that people with the best talent and expertise in a subject can be used to teach a larger number of students.[128]

The Parliamentary Standing Committee in its 172^nd Report recommended that open universities should be made more attractive and relevant by ensuring quality of study material, timely dispatch, necessary infrastructure and dedicated teachers at study centres. Distance learning should be geared to encourage employed personnel to improve academic attainments. ICT should be exploited to penetrate the remote corners of the country.[129]

The Eleventh Five Year Plan and Open and Distance Learning  (ODL)

Open and distance learning system provided higher education to about 25 per cent of higher education learners and the Eleventh Plan expects this figure to increase to 40 per cent. The system has to be prepared to cater to the surge in applicants as a consequence of the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan.[130]

It has an impressive track record of providing quality education and training to a large learner population, by using ICT to create access and opportunities through the length and breadth of the country. The learner profile includes, employed, unemployed, aspirants for employment, those seeking to upgrade skills and knowledge while working, the disadvantaged and marginalized rural youth. The system has developed a wide delivery network.[131]

The Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), was established in 1985 to promote distance learning and has widened access to higher education by adopting integrated multimedia instructions. Its reach has increased considerably through the use of Gyan Darshan, an educational TV channel and Gyan Vani, FM channels.[132]

IGNOU has a delivery network of 53 regional centres, 1,400 study centres and about 25,000 counsellors providing learner support. It has 28 FM radio stations and 6 TV channels, including three interactive channels. It has been given the responsibility to develop an additional 15 FM radio stations.[133]

The focus of ODL during the Eleventh Plan period would be on professional, vocational and career oriented programmes at certificate, diploma and degree levels, maintaining a focus on skill development, vocational training and community development programmes. Skill development has so far been underdeveloped, but two-way interactive platforms like Edusat have created a vast potential for short-term training and there has been a shift from enrichment programmes towards curriculum-based learning programmes. The system however, needs inputs in terms of research, innovations, development of resource material and dedicated networks for efficient deliver and system upgradation.[134]

Polytechnics

In the UK, polytechnics provide full-time, part-time, day and night courses, degree and sub-degree courses that are aimed towards regional aspirations and could be considered as partly community colleges and partly state college.[135]

A team from the Community Colleges for International Development (CCID) carried out a survey in India in 1990 with the purpose of establishing a link between industry and technical education. It found several reasons for the mismatch between industry’s requirements and skills learnt at polytechnics:[136]

1. The curricula are directed from a national perspective and is a mixture of limited specialization.[137]
2. There was very little interaction between the polytechnics and industry.[138]
3. Equipment at the polytechnics was obsolete.[139]
4. Faculty development was poor and teachers had no incentives to make use of the Technical Teacher Training Institutes (TTTI) established in the country.[140]
5. Faculty did not keep abreast with latest changing technologies within the local industries.[141]

The team also found that leadership at the polytechnics were aware of their shortfalls and several had started post-diploma courses aimed at specific industry needs and these graduates were successful in industry. Some had started cooperative programmes with local industries.[142]

Recommendations of the CCID Team on Polytechnics in India

1. The education delivery system needs to develop a systematic approach to identify employment skills, knowledge and abilities required by industry in the present and future and translate these into curricula of polytechnics.[143]
2. Polytechnics should develop a comprehensive faculty development programme with emphasis on technological education.[144]
3. A review should be carried out of the equipment used in all polytechnics with the aim of removing obsolescence and ensuring latest equipment, in collaboration with industry.[145]
4.  Curricula should be reviewed to ensure that it is in keeping with the requirements of the local industries.[146]
5. A systematic process should be set up to ensure that faculty and leadership of polytechnics are in continuous contact with industry.[147]
6. Polytechnics should be encouraged to draw on personnel from local industries to supplement their faculties.[148]

The Special Committee for Reorganization and Development of Polytechnic Education Chaired by Prof. G. R. Damodaran (1971) agreed with most of these comments and recommendations, stating that there have been serious criticisms of the system of polytechnic education in the country by educationists, industrialists, professional bodies and employers for the following reasons:[149]

1. The diploma courses in polytechnics are mostly theoretical. They are a poor imitation of degree courses, and do not serve the purpose of training middle level technical personnel.[150]
2. The diploma courses, as conducted at present are in the broad fields and little attempt has been made towards specialization in any one particular branch of a subject field in which specialist technicians are required.[151]
3. Ideally polytechnic education should articulate a joint effort between technical institutes and industry and technical institutes should consider apprenticeship as an integral part of the total process of polytechnic education.[152]
4. It is only through better faculty development and selection procedures for admission of students that the prevalent ineffectiveness of the teaching and learning in the polytechnics can be corrected.[153]
5. Polytechnics and industry which are located near each other should cooperate in organizing and conducting sandwich courses for training the correct type of technicians that industry requires. They should identify fields of activity, job positions available, and specialities required and reorganise their curricula to suit them. Training should be a judicious combination of theory and practical experience in the field.[154]
6. The curriculum should include a broad based education.[155]
7. Polytechnics were set up to build up its technical education system and there are about 300 institutes which have an annual intake of around 30,000 students. About 70 per cent of the polytechnics are run by state governments and the rest by private agencies or autonomous bodies. The institutes have three and two year full-time courses and sandwich courses. However, there is adequate machinery for the systematic evaluation of the work and progress of these institutions and hence little feedback on performance.[156]
8. A survey of industries made it clear that while diploma holders remain unemployed, a significant proportion of technicians’ positions go to persons without formal qualifications but with job experience at the craftsman level. Further, students of polytechnics do not and cannot fit directly into job situations in industry, because the education and training imparted by polytechnics are not sufficiently industry or practice-oriented.[157]
9. The main objective of the technician education programmes of polytechnics is to give the technician student a sound broad-based knowledge of a chosen field supplemented with actual practical experience in industry or business. Polytechnics can offer only a part of these needs because of the limitations of their workshop facilities. Further, they need fluency in the use of the written and spoken word, develop the right type of motivation, the correct attitude, and a sense of discipline, teamwork and social responsibility. The confidence and competence needed for self-employment should also be developed.[158]
10. There are wide variations in the utilization of diploma holders. A large proportion of skilled craftsmen get promoted to technician positions after they gain experience on the shop floor. Sufficient attention has not been given to this group of technicians in the present system of polytechnic education. A majority of industries favour sandwich courses, where practical experience and academics can go hand in hand, along with refresher courses and retraining programmes for working technicians.[159]
11. Teachers in polytechnics too, need to update their knowledge of the practices in industry in order to make polytechnic education application-oriented and relevant.[160]
12. The technical education system also must make due provision to meet the need for degree courses.[161]
13. The Committee felt that courses must reflect the needs of regional, local and individual industrial and commercial units as closely as possible. It is thus essential that, within a broad framework there should be greater flexibility in course planning.[162]
14. While the practical content as prescribed in polytechnic courses seems impressive, in practice, this is ineffective, due to a lack of clear understanding of practical work, a theoretical teaching approach, lack of equipment and facilities and lack of practical experience, on the part of the teachers, in the work they are trying to teach.[163]
15. The present system of instruction is ineffective in meeting today’s challenges and it is necessary to use more modern and effective teaching methods and aids. Textbooks are not updated and library use is non-existent.[164]
16. The Committee found that the present system of academic organisation and control does not permits flexibility and freedom to polytechnics or teachers to experiment and innovate along new lines in collaboration with industry. Therefore autonomy for polytechnics is essential to experiment with reforms, restructure their courses, establish cooperative relationships with industry in their region, develop new curricula, etc. Where polytechnics have been granted autonomy, their quality has improved.[165]

The Impact of Reservation on the Education Status of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Backward Classes.

A Study of Five States on ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’ conducted by the National Institute For Educational Planning and Administration(NIEPA) states:

1. The study indicates that while utilization of the facilities in the ITIs was good for scheduled castes (SCs), there is a considerable gap in the case of scheduled tribes (STs), even in the special ITIs set up in tribal areas, where even though well equipped, a lack of motivated personnel was seen.[166]
2. Wastage in terms of failures and dropouts was high.[167]
3. Most ex-trainees worked as apprentices and self-employment was minimal.[168]
4. Waiting time to get a job was higher for the SCs/STs as compared to others.[169]
5. Special incentives were found to be inadequate and implementation defective.
6. A characteristic of the scheduled groups is that they are predominantly rural, there is high indebtedness and low literacy levels. SCs are a deprived group due to their low status in the Hindu caste hierarchy, while STs have been isolated and cut off from modern civilization. Tribal economy is geared to primary production and often results in exploitation.[170]
7. Several schemes have been set up to motivate the Scheduled groups by the Central and state governments such as scholarships, hostels, pre-admission coaching centres, free uniforms, relaxation of marks for entrance, reservation of seats, etc. These resulted in considerable expansion in their education. However there is a large gap in enrolment of scheduled and non-scheduled groups, and wastage of education is high in the scheduled groups owing to repetition and dropouts in the ITIs.[171]
8. Technical and vocational training was considered very important for these groups to improve their productivity, particularly as they are first generation learners; they have been traditionally engaged in skilled and semi-skilled work and would perform better in these areas; there are more opportunities for their employment in newly established industries where jobs are reserved for them.[172]
9. The major vocational institutions imparting training for middle level technical personnel are polytechnics, ITIs, junior technical schools, crafts and handicrafts schools, industrial and technical schools:[173]
10. The Secondary Education Commission, in 1953 recommended the setting up of technical schools, as separate institutes or as part of existing institutes, in industrial areas and work in collaboration with industries.[174]
11. When the Commission reviewed the situation in 1964-66, it found that there was a shortfall for middle level technical personnel and recommended an increase of part-time and full-time vocational and professional courses at the lower secondary level and after Class 12. The courses should allow for students to move to the academic stream.[175]
12. It also reported that semi-skilled and skilled workers were primarily trained in the ITIs, while technicians were trained in polytechnics and recommended a doubling of ITIs.[176]
13. However, the Working Group on Technical and Vocational Education reported in 1978 that the ratio between graduates and technicians was 1:2, the output ratio dropped to 1:1. The main reason for this was that students belonged to different backgrounds, facilities were not fully utilized, there was a shortage of operating funds and a lack of motivation of teachers and students. It recommended consolidation, diversification and improvement in quality rather than further expansion.[177]

Other recommendations on ITIs and Polytechnics included:[178]

1. Efficiency and effectiveness in existing facilities and courses should be improved.[179]
2. Shifts in intake capacity between disciplines should be undertaken to cater to emerging needs.[180]
3. New courses should be introduced only after establishing industry and business needs.[181]
4. A credit system for multi-point entry should be introduced.[182]
5. The institutes should be properly supported to contribute to rural and community development.[183]
6. Remedial courses should be conducted to reduce dropouts.[184]
7. Technical educations should be brought under a single national agency.[185]

The Sixth five Year Plan, 1980-85 made similar recommendations, and also emphasised the revamp of ITIs to make them self-employment oriented.[186]

As far as the scheduled groups were concerned, their enrolment rates were far below those of other groups and far below their proportion in the population, with large-scale state-wise variations, despite reservations. Special ITIs have also been set up in tribal areas, where most seats were reserved for the SCs/STs.[187]

Several studies have shown that the reserved quota is seldom fully utilized, mainly because the number of qualified students were inadequate. This is particularly true for the STs. One solution recommended is to make district-wise reservations rather than course-wise.[188]

Dropouts and wastage are a serious problem in the Indian education system from the primary school level to higher education. The main cause was found to be poor economic conditions that resulting in students dropping out in order to take up employment and failures and poor performance due to a poor background inappropriate for studying. Even the stipends given to the scheduled groups were not adequate to motivate them to complete the courses.[189]

The maximum number of dropouts took place at the start of the course, as their poor economic conditions forced them to seek employment, however low-paid. Dropouts during the course were due to manpower requirements during the agricultural season and failures in examinations.[190]

Ex-trainee in the scheduled and non-scheduled groups were equally employed as apprentices. However, non-scheduled groups showed highest self-employment, while SCs and STs showed highest unemployment rates, despite reservations. Waiting time for non-scheduled groups and STs was higher than for SCs, perhaps because of their low holding power and reservations.[191]

Several provisions and incentives have been offered to SCs/STs by the government. Hostel facility is one such provision. However their conditions are deplorable. They are provided a stipend, which is inadequate and not properly disbursed. They also get free stationary, equipment and uniforms.[192]

The Study made the following recommendations:[193]

1. Each ITI should identify the trades that are more popular in their areas and concentrate on courses on these trades, distributing seats according to the requirements of the region to address the problems of admitting students to courses in which they had no aptitudes.[194]
2. Orientation classes and counselling was needed at the start of a programme to enable students to take courses in keeping with their aptitude and interests. Such vocational guidance was found to be non-existent.[195]
3. To address under-utilization of reserved seats, it would be more appropriate to organize reservations based on population of SCs/STs in an area and a relaxation in eligibility criteria.[196]
4. Hostel facilities with proper infrastructure was essential for disadvantaged students, not only for living purposes, but also to provide an atmosphere conducive to study.[197]
5. To reduce dropout rates and wastage, there is a need to provide vertical as well as horizontal mobility.[198]
6. To encourage self-employment, management courses should be introduced in the ITIs.[199]
7. To reduce time between apprenticeship and employment, industry and business should be encouraged to participate in the further development of the ITIs, by providing finance, training, etc.[200]
8. Stipends should be increased and disbursement streamlined.[201]

(Comment: It is clear from the above that the reservation policy has failed and the recommendations made in this Study, barring a few on reservation, match what a community college is about.)

National Expert Committee for Appraisal of Community Polytechnics Chaired by S. S. Kalbag (1987)

A National Expert Committee Chaired by S. S. Kalbag was set up in 1987 to appraise the status of community polytechnics in the country. It states that for a balanced development of the country, manpower for all sectors, organised as well as unorganised needs to be prepared by the technical education system. The All India Council for Technical Education in 1978 recommended that a few selected polytechnics which have shown initiative in promoting interaction with the rural community at large and have the necessary capacity to undertake rural development work, be selected to act as focal points for promoting the transfer of technology to the rural sector and to make contributions to rural development. These polytechnics were designated as Community Polytechnics.[202]

Their tasks were:

1. Socio-economic technical survey of adjoining villages to determine the needs of the people.[203]
2. Manpower development and training through a wide variety of trade courses, non-formal training programmes, entrepreneurial development programmes, etc.[204]
3. Technology transfer.[205]
4. Technical support service to ensure sustenance of rural technologies, and provide assistance to local entrepreneurs in various aspects of enterprise building.[206]
5. Dissemination of information for creating awareness about various developmental schemes and application of science and technology to specific problems.[207]

The shortfalls were noted as follows:

1. There is little attempt to integrate the curricular activities of regular and community polytechnics.[208]
2. Little attention was paid to costing in most of the projects undertaken by community polytechnics.[209]
3. In some cases the training courses organized for rural youth do not reflect the skill and potential of the polytechnic either in content or in methodology.[210]
4. A weak information system that limited technology transfer.[211]
5. The approach does not have a multiplier effect. It has also not ensured the involvement of the entire polytechnic as an institution into this activity. There is therefore a need for the reorientation of the scheme.[212]

The main objective of the scheme should be to develop the human resource in the rural areas, through technical skills and a scientific methodology to identify opportunities in their economic environment and exploit them. The polytechnics as a whole should raise the S&T level of their own staff and students, by solving live rural problems.[213]

The difficulty in getting good quality staff is genuine. Many community colleges do not get funds in time.[214]

Community Polytechnics, which have already established a base in the villages and built up some linkages, need to be strengthened and guided in the selection of projects and given a sound information system, to enable them to perform more effectively as agents of change in the rural areas. They should select a village institution, preferably a secondary school, to act as its village extension arm, where they could build training facilities for multi-skill programmes relevant to the village environment or of educational significance. All facilities existing in the rural area such as vocational school, ITIs or industries should be used to the maximum extent possible to develop need based knowledge packages.[215]

They should develop trainers from amongst the village youth including schoolteachers within the village centre. All training should be oriented towards, self-employment or for the unorganised sector in the rural economy. The trainees should be multi-skilled.[216]

Because the level of technology in village society is low, the scope for technological projects is great and they will have a very beneficial effect on the quality of the polytechnic function.[217]

Training in skills is not only for starting a vocation but should include the ability to read and write, to communicate, carry out simple computations and so forth. Community services can be linked to skills training.[218]

Each area has dominant theme problems that must receive special attention.[219]

The staff and students of a particular discipline should discuss and agree on a curriculum relevant to rural needs. The teaching should avoid as far as possible lectures and be based mainly on activities. The main role of the staff and students will be in problem solving in their own discipline.[220]

Report on Conditions of Work and Promotion of Livelihoods in the Unorganized Sector (2007)

A study on conditions of work and livelihoods in the unorganized sector in 2007 states that the average number of years of schooling of workers in the rural unorganized non-agricultural sector was found to be 4.6 as compared to 9 years in the organized sector, and for the unorganized agricultural sector it was 2.8. Mean years of schooling among casual workers in the unorganized non-agricultural sector was 3.5, thus denying workers access to jobs in the organized sector and confining them to casual labour.[221]

Further, with the commercialization of agriculture, crop diversification and introduction of new technologies, education has become a key input for development and modernization of agriculture and the welfare of the people dependent on it. Levels of illiteracy are such that it is almost impossible to assimilate new information on better agricultural practices.[222]

The central and state governments have several skills training programmes in the rural areas, while NGOs and other private organizations are also partaking in this. As per the NSSO 61^st Round, about 2 per cent of people aged 15-29 have received formal vocation training and 8 per cent have received non-formal vocational training. However, there is no structured way in which skills are imparted to workers in the informal sector. Most of the government programmes are focussed on the organized sector, with the entry level being Class 8 or 10. Thus there is an urgent need to upgrade skills in a more structured manner.[223]

The government has set up a Modular Employable Skills (MES) system of training in a public-private partnership, where curricula are developed in consultation with industry.[224] However, the Commission is of the view that the skill development initiatives undertaken by the government are inadequate for workers in the unorganized sector who have low levels of education.[225]

Annual Report 2005-6, Skills for Progress

Skills for Progress, an all India association of private technical and vocational training institutions describes in its annual report of 2005-6, its collaboration with the Community Colleges for International Development (CCID), USA. CCID is a consortium of colleges that aim to pursue formal higher education with economic development, and take up skills development in developing countries. CCID and SKIP are working on programmes focussing on curriculum development, workforce development, communications, electronic education resources, etc.[226]

Programmes aim at capacity building of institutions to stay relevant to the changing needs of vocational and technical training to enhance employability.[227]

Skills Development Initiative of the Confederation of Indian Industries (CII)

The objective of the CII’s Skills Development Initiative in 2004, is to provide social inclusiveness and bring the marginalized sections of society into the mainstream economy. The main features of the initiative are its localized and need-based approach, scalability, practical hands on experience, training and testing, accessibility quality and cost-effectiveness, centralized certification, etc.[228]

Most training facilities as well as trainers, function for 8-10 hours per weekday and they can be used for the remaining periods of time, to save costs.[229]

It is important that certification should to be a certain minimum standard acceptable to industry throughout the country to allow for mobility of workers.[230]

Geographical areas and target groups are identified, following which the relevant skills – localized and marketable – that need to be developed are identified. The curricula are worked out in collaboration with the local industries. Panchayats and other local bodies are also consulted.[231]

Trainees are selected on the basis of their motivation and abilities and the programmes are flexible in scheduling. Constant monitoring and assessments of trainees are undertaken and unsuccessful candidates can reappear for assessments and can even join another batch for additional training.[232]

Indian Labour Report 2007, by TeamLease Services

Indian Labour Report 2007, by TeamLease Services states that while poverty is declining in India, inequality is rising and 57 per cent of Indian youth suffer from some form of skill deprivation. Corporate India cannot find skilled employees and much of the labour force consists of the working poor.’.[233]

Despite the large manpower availability in the country, employability remains a key challenge. Pressures on employment arise from several factors including shift in the demographics of the population, the inability of an ailing agricultural sector to support labour and an educational system that is not in sync with the requirements of business and industry. The lack of interaction between academics and business and industry results in a lack of focus on skill development of individuals. The decision of an individual to continue with education depends on receiving adequate returns for the efforts made, and the current system does not do so, resulting in dropouts, under-trained and under-skilled labour. Globally, two approaches are followed to achieve better employability – educational reforms followed by a focus on lifelong learning opportunities.[234]

The base for human resources lies in a strong school education system. No changes in higher education will provide an outcome if schools fail to build a large base of well-trained youth with sufficient chances for vocational training. Vocational training is important not just to get a job, but also to improve the productivity of self-employed people.[235]

Pratham, a leading NGO in education has pointed out that only 16.5 per cent of rural children in Class 1-8 can read a word, 25.75 per cent can recognise numbers.[236]

Employment has been seen as a means of poverty alleviation. As a result, the employment programmes have had no link to generating growth opportunities. The main issue to address today is not providing employment but increasing the employability of the labour force.[237]

The high dropout rates at each level of the education system, has resulted in a majority of the work force lacking an education. The others have to contend with an outdated system that involves rote learning rather than learning skills, understanding information and solving practical problems.[238]

The NSSO 61^st Round states that while 70 per cent of the population completed primary education in the 18-22 age group, only 6 per cent completed a diploma course and 97 per cent of the work force in the country, in the 15-60 age group has no technical education. The inability of the system to provide continuation of education leads to fewer students going to next levels of education resulting in an inability to meet the needs of the job market, lower employability and an accumulation of people with low skill at the bottom of the job pyramid.[239]

Although the number of colleges and universities has mushroomed in the country, they lack the ability to impart career-oriented knowledge and training; curricula are out-dated; there is little interaction between industry and educational institutes, and only 10 per cent of the colleges fall under the Grade A category. The poor level of quality of colleges means that students passing out of these colleges would earn low incomes or would be unable to find jobs relevant to the courses pursued by them. This is also one of the causes for the high levels of dropouts in higher education. When future prospects are not attractive, the better option appears to be to drop out, particularly for the deprived sections of society.[240]

There is a wide range of income divergence within the same stream and income is linked to the quality of skills. Though higher education levels help an individual reach the desired industry, sustainability depends on how well the skills are adapted and improved over time. It is thus the quality of the institute that imparts the education or training which is the most important determinant of the income earning potential.[241]

For instance, only 30 per cent of IT graduates are actually employable in the IT sector.[242]

A GHRDC-Competition Success Review Survey 2006 reported that out of approximately 1100 Business-Schools in India only 400 met the minimum eligibility criteria.[243] And while the top institutes usually register 100 per cent placements, the bottom ones barely manage 25 per cent.[244]

This scenario is true for all streams of education in the country, emphasising the fact that good infrastructure, instruction and other inputs are essential to ensure high standards of educational, liberal or vocational, which is lacking in the majority of educational institutes.[245]

An analysis of data available from the NSSO 61^st Round shows the following:

1. Greater education levels lead to greater income but lower probability of being employed.
2. Formal vocational training has no impact on incomes or the likelihood of being employed, reflecting the poor quality of existing vocational training.
3. Informal vocational training not associated with formal certification, such as training in household occupations settings, has a positive impact on likelihood of being employed, but does not affect income levels significantly.

This highlights the importance of having a formal, well-designed vocational training system, and the poor quality available in the country.

---

[1] Dr. M. Anandakrishnan, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 19.

[2] Prof. Victor S. D’Souza, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 24

[3] Dr. M. Anandakrishnan, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 19.

[4] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 105.

[5] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 37-8.

[6] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 107.

[7] Dr. M. Anandakrishnan, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 15.

[8] Dr. M. Anandakrishnan, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 20-21.

[9] Dr. M. Anandakrishnan, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 21

[10] Prof. Adrian J. Almeida, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 50.

[11] Prof. Adrian J. Almeida, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 53

[12] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 103.

[13] Annual Report 2005-6, Skills for Progress, p. 10.

[14] Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, p. 100.

[15] Prof. Victor D’Souza, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 27-28

[16] Prof. Victor D’Souza, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 28-29.

[17] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. ii.

[18] Dr. Mani Jacob, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. v.

[19] Dr. Mani Jacob, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. xii.

[20] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 31.

[21] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 31.

[22] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 31.

[23] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 38.

[24] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 57.

[25] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 60.

[26] Prof. Adrian J. Almeida, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 53.

[27] Prof. Adrian J. Almeida, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 53.

[28] Dr. Maxwell C. King in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 3.

[29] Dr. David H. Ponitz, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 12.

[30] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 32.

[31] Dr. Bill F. Stewart, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 5.

[32] Dr. Bill F. Stewart, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 6.

[33] Dr. Bill F. Stewart, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 6.

[34] Dr. Al Koller, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 8.

[35] Dr. Al Koller, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 8-9.

[36] Dr. M. Anandakrishnan, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 16.

[37] Dr. M. Anandakrishnan, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 16.

[38] Dr. M. Anandakrishnan, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 16.

[39] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 37.

[40] Dr. David H. Ponitz, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 11.

[41] Prof. Adrian J. Almeida, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 53.

[42] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 136.

[43] Dr. M. Anandakrishnan, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 19.

[44] Dr. M. Anandakrishnan, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 18-19.

[45] Prof. Victor S. D’Souza, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 23-24.

[46] Prof. Victor S. D’Souza, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 24-25

[47] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 136.

[48] Prof. Victor S. D’Souza, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 25.

[49] Prof. Victor S. D’Souza, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 26.

[50] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 38.

[51] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 38.

[52] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 38.

[53] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 38.

[54] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 39.

[55] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 39.

[56] Prof. Victor S. D’Souza, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 29.

[57] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 40.

[58] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 40-41.

[59] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 90.

[60] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 40-41.

[61] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 40-41.

[62] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 40-41.

[63] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 40-41.

[64] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 40-41.

[65] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 40-41.

[66] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 90.

[67] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 90

[68] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 92.

[69] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 40-41.

[70] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 77.

[71] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 90.

[72] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 77.

[73] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 80.

[74] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 40-41.

[75] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 40-41.

[76] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 146.

[77] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 39-40.

[78] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 39-40.

[79] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 39-40.

[80] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 39-40.

[81] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 39-40.

[82] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 39-40.

[83] ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, p. 35.

[84] ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, p. 57.

[85] ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, p. 50.

[86] ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, p. 73.

[87] The 172^nd Parliamentary Standing Committee, in ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, pp. 11-16.

[88] The 172^nd Parliamentary Standing Committee, in ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, pp. 11-16.

[89] The 172^nd Parliamentary Standing Committee, in ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, pp. 11-16.

[90] The 172^nd Parliamentary Standing Committee, in ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, pp. 11-16.

[91] The 172^nd Parliamentary Standing Committee, in ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, pp. 11-16.

[92] The 172^nd Parliamentary Standing Committee, in ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, pp. 11-16.

[93] The 172^nd Parliamentary Standing Committee, in ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, pp. 11-16.

[94] The 172^nd Parliamentary Standing Committee, in ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, pp. 11-16.

[95] The 172^nd Parliamentary Standing Committee, in ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, pp. 11-16.

[96] The 172^nd Parliamentary Standing Committee, in ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, pp. 11-16.

[97] The 172^nd Parliamentary Standing Committee, in ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, p. 19.

[98] The 172^nd Parliamentary Standing Committee, in ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, p. 20.

[99] The 172^nd Parliamentary Standing Committee, in ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, p. 20.

[100] The 172^nd Parliamentary Standing Committee, in ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, p. 22.

[101] ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, pp. 75-6.

[102] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 132-4.

[103] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 132-4.

[104] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 132-4.

[105] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 132-4.

[106] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 132-4.

[107] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 132-4.

[108] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 138-9.

[109] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 138-9.

[110] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 138-9.

[111] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 138-9.

[112] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 138-9.

[113] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 138-9.

[114] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 138-9.

[115] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 138-9.

[116] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 138-9.

[117] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 138-9.

[118] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 139-40.

[119] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 139-40.

[120] ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, p. 23.

[121] ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, pp. 23-4.

[122] ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, pp. 23-4.

[123] ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, pp. 23-4.

[124] ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, pp. 23-4.

[125] ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, pp. 23-4.

[126] ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, pp. 23-4.

[127] ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, pp. 23-4.

[128] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 91.

[129] The 172^nd Parliamentary Standing Committee, in ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, pp. 11-16.

[130] ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, p. 93.

[131] ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, pp. 95-6.

[132] ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, p. 4.

[133] ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, pp. 96-7.

[134] ‘Working Group on Higher Education – Eleventh Five Year Plan’, pp. 97-8.

[135] Dr. Sudha Rao, in Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 34.

[136] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 127.

[137] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 197.

[138] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 197.

[139] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 197.

[140] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 197.

[141] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, p. 128

[142] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 127-8.

[143] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 129-30.

[144] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 129-30.

[145] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 129-30.

[146] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 129-30.

[147] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 129-30.

[148] Dr. S. Xavier Alphonse S. J., Changing Track, pp. 129-30.

[149] Special Committee for Reorganization and Development of Polytechnic Education Chaired by Prof. G. R. Damodaran.

[150] Special Committee for Reorganization and Development of Polytechnic Education Chaired by Prof. G. R. Damodaran.

[151] Special Committee for Reorganization and Development of Polytechnic Education Chaired by Prof. G. R. Damodaran.

[152] Special Committee for Reorganization and Development of Polytechnic Education Chaired by Prof. G. R. Damodaran.

[153] Special Committee for Reorganization and Development of Polytechnic Education Chaired by Prof. G. R. Damodaran.

[154] Special Committee for Reorganization and Development of Polytechnic Education Chaired by Prof. G. R. Damodaran.

[155] Special Committee for Reorganization and Development of Polytechnic Education Chaired by Prof. G. R. Damodaran.

[156] Special Committee for Reorganization and Development of Polytechnic Education Chaired by Prof. G. R. Damodaran.

[157] Special Committee for Reorganization and Development of Polytechnic Education Chaired by Prof. G. R. Damodaran.

[158] Special Committee for Reorganization and Development of Polytechnic Education Chaired by Prof. G. R. Damodaran.

[159] Special Committee for Reorganization and Development of Polytechnic Education Chaired by Prof. G. R. Damodaran.

[160] Special Committee for Reorganization and Development of Polytechnic Education Chaired by Prof. G. R. Damodaran.

[161] Special Committee for Reorganization and Development of Polytechnic Education Chaired by Prof. G. R. Damodaran.

[162] Special Committee for Reorganization and Development of Polytechnic Education Chaired by Prof. G. R. Damodaran.

[163] Special Committee for Reorganization and Development of Polytechnic Education Chaired by Prof. G. R. Damodaran.

[164] Special Committee for Reorganization and Development of Polytechnic Education Chaired by Prof. G. R. Damodaran.

[165] Special Committee for Reorganization and Development of Polytechnic Education Chaired by Prof. G. R. Damodaran.

[166] ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[167] ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[168] ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[169] ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[170] ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[171] ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[172] ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[173] ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[174] Secondary Education Commission, 1953, in ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[175] Secondary Education Commission, 1964-66, in ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[176] Secondary Education Commission, 1964-66, in ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[177] Working Group on Technical and Vocational Education, 1978 in ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[178] Working Group on Technical and Vocational Education, 1978 in ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[179] Working Group on Technical and Vocational Education, 1978 in ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[180] Working Group on Technical and Vocational Education, 1978 in ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[181] Working Group on Technical and Vocational Education, 1978 in ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[182] Working Group on Technical and Vocational Education, 1978 in ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[183] Working Group on Technical and Vocational Education, 1978 in ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[184] Working Group on Technical and Vocational Education, 1978 in ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[185] Working Group on Technical and Vocational Education, 1978 in ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[186] The Sixth five Year Plan, 1980-85 in ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[187] ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[188] ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[189] ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[190] ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[191] ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[192] ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[193] ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[194] ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[195] ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[196] ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[197] ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[198] ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[199] ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[200] ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[201] ‘Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Industrial Training Institutes’, NIEPA.

[202] National Expert Committee for Appraisal of Community Polytechnics Chaired by S. S. Kalbag (1987)

[203] National Expert Committee for Appraisal of Community Polytechnics Chaired by S. S. Kalbag (1987)

[204] National Expert Committee for Appraisal of Community Polytechnics Chaired by S. S. Kalbag (1987)

[205] National Expert Committee for Appraisal of Community Polytechnics Chaired by S. S. Kalbag (1987)

[206] National Expert Committee for Appraisal of Community Polytechnics Chaired by S. S. Kalbag (1987)

[207] National Expert Committee for Appraisal of Community Polytechnics Chaired by S. S. Kalbag (1987)

[208] National Expert Committee for Appraisal of Community Polytechnics Chaired by S. S. Kalbag (1987)

[209] National Expert Committee for Appraisal of Community Polytechnics Chaired by S. S. Kalbag (1987)

[210] National Expert Committee for Appraisal of Community Polytechnics Chaired by S. S. Kalbag (1987)

[211] National Expert Committee for Appraisal of Community Polytechnics Chaired by S. S. Kalbag (1987)

[212] National Expert Committee for Appraisal of Community Polytechnics Chaired by S. S. Kalbag (1987)

[213] National Expert Committee for Appraisal of Community Polytechnics Chaired by S. S. Kalbag (1987)

[214] National Expert Committee for Appraisal of Community Polytechnics Chaired by S. S. Kalbag (1987)

[215] National Expert Committee for Appraisal of Community Polytechnics Chaired by S. S. Kalbag (1987)

[216] National Expert Committee for Appraisal of Community Polytechnics Chaired by S. S. Kalbag (1987)

[217] National Expert Committee for Appraisal of Community Polytechnics Chaired by S. S. Kalbag (1987)

[218] National Expert Committee for Appraisal of Community Polytechnics Chaired by S. S. Kalbag (1987)

[219] National Expert Committee for Appraisal of Community Polytechnics Chaired by S. S. Kalbag (1987)

[220] National Expert Committee for Appraisal of Community Polytechnics Chaired by S. S. Kalbag (1987)

[221] Report on Conditions of Work and Promotion of Livelihoods in the Unorganized Sector (2007), p. 16.

[222] Report on Conditions of Work and Promotion of Livelihoods in the Unorganized Sector (2007).

[223] Report on Conditions of Work and Promotion of Livelihoods in the Unorganized Sector (2007), pp. 191-2.

[224] Report on Conditions of Work and Promotion of Livelihoods in the Unorganized Sector (2007), p. 192.

[225] Report on Conditions of Work and Promotion of Livelihoods in the Unorganized Sector (2007), p. 223.

[226] Annual Report 2005-6, Skills for Progress, p. 8.

[227] Annual Report 2005-6, Skills for Progress, p. 9.

[228] Skills Development Initiative of the Confederation of Indian Industries.

[229] Skills Development Initiative of the Confederation of Indian Industries.

[230] Skills Development Initiative of the Confederation of Indian Industries.

[231] Skills Development Initiative of the Confederation of Indian Industries.

[232] Skills Development Initiative of the Confederation of Indian Industries.

[233] TeamLease Services, Indian Labour Report 2007, p. 13.

[234] TeamLease Services, Indian Labour Report 2007, p. 15.

[235] TeamLease Services, Indian Labour Report 2007, p. 16.

[236] Pratham ‘Annual Status of Education Report (Rural), 2006’ in TeamLease, Indain Labour Report, 2007, p. 26.

[237] TeamLease Services, Indian Labour Report 2007, p. 17.

[238] TeamLease Services, Indian Labour Report 2007, p. 18.

[239] TeamLease Services, Indian Labour Report 2007, pp. 19-20.

[240] TeamLease Services, Indian Labour Report 2007, pp. 27-31.

[241] TeamLease Services, Indian Labour Report 2007, p. 45.

[242] TeamLease Services, Indian Labour Report 2007, p. 40.

[243] TeamLease Services, Indian Labour Report 2007, p. 45.

[244] TeamLease Services, Indian Labour Report 2007, p. 47.

[245] TeamLease Services, Indian Labour Report 2007, p. 47.